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Section
Cardiovascular Disorders
Cardiovascular Disorders
Approach to the Cardiac Patient
Introduction
History
Physical Examination
Vital signs
Pulsus paradoxus
Pulses
Veins
Chest observation and palpation
Cardiac Auscultation
Systolic heart sounds
Diastolic heart sounds
Systolic murmurs
Diastolic murmurs
Continuous murmurs
Pericardial friction rub
Chest Pain
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Testing
Treatment
Orthostatic Hypotension
Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Testing
Prevention and Treatment
Palpitations
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Testing
Treatment
Syncope
Pathophysiology and Etiology
Primary cardiac disorders
Reflex-mediated vasomotor instability
Orthostatic hypotension
Cerebrovascular disorders
Other causes
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Testing
Prognosis and Treatment
Arrhythmias and Conduction Disorders
Introduction
Anatomy and Physiology
Electrophysiology
Normal rhythm
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Bradyarrhythmias
Tachyarrhythmias
Treatment
Drugs for Arrhythmias
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Devices and Procedures
Direct-current (DC) cardioversion-defibrillation
Pacemakers
Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs)
Radiofrequency (RF) ablation
Surgery
Atrial Fibrillation
Etiology and Classification
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Ventricular rate control
Rhythm control
Prevention of thromboembolism
Atrial Fibrillation and Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) Syndrome
Atrial Flutter
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Atrioventricular Block
First-degree AV block
Second-degree AV block
Third-degree AV block
Bundle Branch and Fascicular Block
Ectopic Supraventricular Rhythms
Reentrant Supraventricular Tachycardias (SVT, PSVT)
Pathophysiology and Etiology
Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Sinus Node Dysfunction
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Ventricular Fibrillation
Ventricular Premature Beats
Prognosis and Treatment
Ventricular Tachycardia
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Treatment
Acute
Long-term
Torsades de pointes Ventricular Tachycardia
Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Arterial Hypertension
Introduction
Etiology
Primary hypertension
Secondary hypertension
Pathophysiology
Abnormal Na transport
Sympathetic nervous system
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Vasodilator deficiency
Pathology and complications
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
History
Physical examination
Testing
Prognosis
General Treatment
Lifestyle modifications
Drugs
Drugs for Hypertension
Diuretics
β−Blockers
Ca channel blockers
ACE inhibitors
Angiotensin II receptor blockers
Direct renin inhibitors
Adrenergic modifiers
Direct vasodilators
Hypertensive Emergencies
Hypertensive urgencies
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Renovascular Hypertension
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Arteriosclerosis
Introduction
Atherosclerosis
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Risk Factors
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis and Screening
Symptomatic patients
Asymptomatic patients
Treatment
Diet
Physical activity
Antiplatelet drugs
Other drugs
Nonatheromatous Arteriosclerosis
Cardiac Tumors
Cardiac Tumors
Classification
Benign primary tumors
Malignant primary tumors
Metastatic tumors
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Cardiovascular Tests and Procedures
Introduction
Cardiac Catheterization
Procedure
Specific Tests
Angiography
Intravascular ultrasonography
Tests for cardiac shunts
Measurement of cardiac output and flow
Endomyocardial biopsy
Contraindications and Complications
Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)
Echocardiography
Electrocardiography (ECG)
Standard ECG Components
Specialized ECG Tests
Electrophysiologic Studies (EPS)
Imaging Tests
Chest x-rays
CT
MRI
PET
Percutaneous Coronary Interventions (PCI)
Contraindications and Complications
Radionuclide Imaging
Myocardial Perfusion Imaging
Infarct Avid Imaging
Radionuclide Ventriculography
LV
RV
Valves
Shunts
Stress Testing
Stress Methodology
Exercise stress testing
Pharmacologic stress testing
Diagnostic Methodology
Tilt Table Testing
Coronary Artery Disease
Introduction
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Risk Factors
Anatomy
Prevention
Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS)
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Myocardial dysfunction
MI
Electrical dysfunction
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
Unstable angina
NSTEMI and STEMI
Diagnosis
ECG
Cardiac markers
Other tests
Prognosis
Unstable angina
NSTEMI and STEMI
General Treatment
Drugs
Antiplatelet drugs
Antithrombotic drugs
β-Blockers
Nitrates
Other drugs
Treatment of Unstable Angina and NSTEMI
PCI
Treatment of STEMI
PCI
Fibrinolytics (thrombolytics)
Antithrombotic drugs
Complications
Sinus node disturbances
Atrial arrhythmias
Conduction defects
Ventricular arrhythmias
Heart failure
Papillary muscle disorders
Myocardial rupture
Ventricular aneurysm
Hypotension and cardiogenic shock
RV ischemia or infarction
Recurrent ischemia
Mural thrombosis
Pericarditis
Post-MI syndrome (Dressler's syndrome)
Rehabilitation and Postdischarge Treatment
Drugs
Angina Pectoris
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Testing
Prognosis
Treatment
Drugs
Percutaneous intervention (PCI)
Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery
Variant Angina
Syndrome X
Silent Ischemia
Diseases of the Aorta and its Branches
Introduction
Abdominal Aortic Branch Occlusion
Diagnosis and Treatment
Aneurysms
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms (AAA)
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Aortic Branch Aneurysms
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis and Treatment
Aortic Dissection
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Aortitis
Endocarditis
Introduction
Infective Endocarditis
Pathophysiology and Etiology
Endocardial factors
Microorganisms
Consequences
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
SBE
ABE and PVE
Right-sided endocarditis
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Antibiotic regimens
Cardiac valve surgery
Response to treatment
Prevention
Noninfective Endocarditis
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Marantic endocarditis
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Heart Failure and Cardiomyopathies
Introduction
Cor Pulmonale
Pathophysiology and Etiology
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Treatment
Dilated Congestive Cardiomyopathy
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Heart Failure
Physiology
Pathophysiology
Cardiac response
Hemodynamic responses
Renal responses
Neurohumoral responses
Classification and Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
End-of-life care
Treatment
Surgery
Arrhythmias
Refractory HF
Drugs
Diuretics
ACE inhibitors
Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)
Aldosterone receptor blockers
β-Blockers
Vasodilators
Digitalis preparations
Other drugs
Pulmonary Edema
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis and Treatment
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Pericarditis
Pericarditis
Anatomy and Pathophysiology
Etiology
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Acute pericarditis
Pericardial effusion
Cardiac tamponade
Constrictive pericarditis
Diagnosis of cause
Treatment
Peripheral Arterial Disorders
Introduction
Acrocyanosis
Erythromelalgia
Fibromuscular Dysplasia
Peripheral Arterial Aneurysms
Peripheral Arterial Disease
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Percutaneous intervention
Surgery
External compression therapy
Acute Peripheral Arterial Occlusion
Raynaud's Phenomenon
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Thromboangiitis Obliterans
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Peripheral Venous and Lymphatic Disorders
Introduction
Arteriovenous Fistula
Chronic Venous Insufficiency and Postphlebitic Syndrome
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prevention and Treatment
Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT)
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Anticoagulants
Inferior vena cava filter (IVCF)
Thrombolytic drugs
Surgery
Prevention
Idiopathic Telangiectasias
Lymphedema
Classification and Etiology
Primary lymphedemas
Secondary lymphedema
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Superficial Venous Thrombosis
Varicose Veins
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Treatment
Sports and the Heart
Introduction
Athletic Heart Syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Sudden Cardiac Death in Athletes
Screening
Valvular Disorders
Introduction
Aortic Regurgitation
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Aortic Stenosis
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Mitral Regurgitation
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Mitral Stenosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Pulmonic Regurgitation
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis and Treatment
Pulmonic Stenosis
Tricuspid Regurgitation
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Tricuspid Stenosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
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